The notion of attachment as an essential ingredient for healthy human development has been greatly researched in recent years. Due to individual differences among researchers, the concept has been both praised and criticized (Stein & Jacobs, 1998). Although there are controversial arguments over the importance of attachment to functioning, there are at least some universal definitions that have been accepted and agreed upon. Bowlby (1980) described attachment as being an all-encompassing, everlasting bond between a child and an adult. This includes the necessity to maintain close contact with the individual with exploration taking place only within the safety net of the adult's presence. Absence of the attached figure, whether child or adult, will result in distress and fear. Ainsworth (1989) provided a similar definition that described the bond between attached individuals as being comfortable and safe, difficult to be mimicked among others. This attachment leaves one with the yearning for the other and to maintain closeness over time. Unfortunately, certain situations are present in today's culture that does not reinforce a secure relationship among individuals. Although not omnipresent, the negative scenarios are significant and should be addressed (Allen & Moore, 1998).

There has been great emphasis on the importance of early childhood - caregiver attachment (Barnett & Butler, 1999). It is believed that secure bonding leads to psychological well being and resistance to ordinary as well as extreme stress experienced throughout a lifetime (Thompson, 2000). The development of the child - caregiver relationship begins at birth, having psychological effects that last well into adulthood (Svanberg, 1998). How an adult reacts to stress relies on childhood experiences with separation anxiety being the first stressful situation (Warren, Huston, Egeland, & Sroufe, 1997). If attachment is not secure, the baby will have a bad reaction to mother's absence (Stovall, 2000). This will lead to future anxiety, such as with individuals who suffer from Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Research has indicated that the afflicted grew from an environment that was unresponsive, angry, and insecure in attachment, providing a constant feeling of vulnerability (Warren, et. al., 1997).

Caregiver influence may be productive or damaging to the attached individual (Bower, 1997). Often, children seek out behavior that is consistent and affectionate. This harbors a secure attachment that results in an individual that is resilient, trustful, emotionally stable, and high on self-esteem (Svanberg, 1998). Certain social factors come into play at this point, such as the accepted and sometimes necessary practice of divorce. Research has indicated that parental discord has affected children to a varying degree dependent on age. Basically, the earlier a child is confronted with parental separation, the lower the feeling of attachment, trust, and security (Woodward, Fergusson, & Belsky, 2000). This early separation leads to an increase in anxiety during childhood as well as adulthood (Warren, et. al., 1997). Fortunately, the older the individual, the less the damage, with a ceiling effect occurring once the child is in late adolescence, apparently having no bearing on attachment (Woodward, et. al., 2000).

Identity also develops from the level of attachment experienced (Giblin, 1994). A child that is secure will be more than likely to be confident and resilient when confronted with peer pressures (Laible, Carlo, Raffaelli, 2000). Due to high self-esteem that results from security and human contact, the individual will more likely to assume the role of the leader in social situations (Deason & Randolph, 1998). People who are not nourished through secure attachments will be more vulnerable to issues of peer pressure or negative feedback (Barnett & Butler, 1999). This vulnerability leaves room for self-doubt and higher, more pathological states of anxiety (Thompson, 2000). Overall leading to less established and weaker bonds in current and later social situations, causing psychological discord (Deason & Randolph, 1998). This effects future employment, support group and marital relationships (Bower, 1997).

The psychological bond between individuals often influences biological reactions to stress. For this reason, a well-developed attachment is associated with preventative medicine (Svanberg, 1998). One simple biological function that seems to be influenced by psychological well being is eating behavior. A recent study conducted by Chatoor, Ganiban, Colin, Plummer, and Harmon (1998) investigated three groups of infants. Anorexic, picky eaters, and healthy eaters were examined on a psychological level that focused on caregiver / child attachment. It was found that picky eaters and healthy eaters were different from anorexic infants on the level of attachment. Anorexic infants displayed high levels of insecurity, mistrust, anxiety, and depression. Certainly the research states that besides the psychological effects associated with attachment, biological consequences are present.

It should be noted that gender differences are not noted so far as the level of attachment. Males and females are equally capable of forming bonds between parents as well as friends. The closeness and alliance across gender is the same, as well as the beneficial consequences, such as social, psychological and biological (Forbes & Adams-Curtis, 2000). The differences between gender come from research that was performed using a sample of delinquents. Anderson and Holmes (1999) found that although differences on the potential to form attached relationships were not apparent, that consequences of not forming them were different across gender. The findings indicated that parental attachment was a factor in delinquency among boys. In support of this notion was the decrease in negative behavior when attachment was increased among the sample of males. On the other hand, parental attachment was not so much an issue with girls as was the attachment to peers. Females apparently have more of a dependency on friends, as indicated by the decrease in delinquent behavior with an increase of friend attachment.

In some cases, too much attachment has negative effects in social functioning. Thurber (1999) found that the phenomenon of being homesick was a result of being too attached to an individual. Like the research of Ainsworth (1989), the individual becomes unable to cope with the idea that the attached individual is not present and becomes hopeless, vulnerable, and depressed. Ultimately, the individual becomes avoidant of what are otherwise enjoyable activities, such as going away to camp. In the early stages of adolescence, this becomes a pre-cursor for future anxiety and maladaption to social situations (Giblin, 1994). Such behavior reinforcement creates an individual that is unable to function independently (Thurber, 1999).

In adolescent years, the individual begins to transfer the attachment behavior learned in childhood to social situations and peer groups (Laible, et. al., 2000). Perceptions and experiences with perception become integrated into a person's verbal and non-verbal emotional reaction, thoughts, and behavior across age as well as culture (Waters & Cummings, 2000). In essence, the individual bases all of the experiences of childhood and accommodates the new situations of adulthood.

Mullis, Hill and Readdick (1999) found that adolescent's attachment to friends will reflect the bonds formed with parents. Adolescence is a time of self-discovery when attachment is important for coping, confronting negative situations, and threats to the self (Torquati & Vazsonyi, 1999). Attachment, when low, can lead to depression, anxiety and other negative emotional reactions to new social experience (Waters & Cummings, 2000). On the other hand, as supported by the work of Torquati and Vazsonyi (1999), who studied females that subsequently were shown to focused on their childhood attachment styles when they acted and thought about relationships during adolescence, strong, secure attachment individuals exude confidence and independence. They make many new relationships and blossom socially and psychologically. On the other hand, those with insecure experiences during childhood have low self-esteem, minimal relationships and fewer successful scenarios.

Factors that lead to maladjustment in attachment development are repeated rejection, inconsistency in emotion, and abandonment (Allen & Moore, 1998). These factors may be prevalent in any stage of development, leading to varying degrees of psychological reaction (Woodward, et. al., 2000). Changes in attachment that occur early in life because of social unrest, such as divorce, family instability or death of care-giver may have different tolls on a persons psyche (Giblin, 1994). Often, it is possible to provide training for a parent who may be lacking the ability to form a true attachment due to his or her own psychological problems. It may also benefit the child to find a new alternative to the traditional care-giver such as a friend or relative, in order to establish a support in crisis to have the alliance that is crucial in the attachment relationship (Svanberg, 1998).

Overall, attachment has been shown to have social, psychological and biological influence on the individual. As illustrated, there is a plethora of information that supports the notion that attachment is important for daily functioning. Unfortunately, there is a lack in studies that focus on biological consequences and correlations to attachment. Some interesting future studies may incorporate healthy versus unhealthy children and adults to their relationships and strength of attachment. As mentioned, feeding habits are different according to the level of bonding experienced.

Since certain psychological responses occur because of varying levels of attachment, it may be feasible to assume that anxiety related disease, such as heart attacks may correlate with this subject. An interesting question to answer would be, what level of attachment is experienced by heart attack victims, what percentage have good relationships versus bad ones. Of course, many variables would need to be factored out, but it is an interesting subject.

Another area to explore is longevity. Do people with low attachments die earlier than those with strong relationships? Besides the actual quantity of living, how would people rate their quality of living when comparing low attachment to high attachment? How would those results compare across socio-economic levels? It could be assumed that the self-esteem that results from the bonding might allow one to view their quality of living higher in lower socio-economic groups than high with low attachment.

In general, there have been many levels of research that find similar results. Although this is a good aspect of investigation, since it supports past claims, it may be a sign that enough has been done in this field. Upon replication comes the decrease in expansion. Some different angles would benefit this subject for the sake of interest and collection of new material.

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